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THE HAKHAMANIAN EMPIRE
CYRUS THE GREAT (Persian name KURUSH) 559 - 529 BCE
Cyrus II became king of Anshan (one of the two Persian kingdoms) on the death of his father Cambyses I (Persian name Kambujiyeh) . Soon after he became king he conquered the other Persian kingdom of his cousins and established a single Persian kingdom. Cyrus was an extremely ambitious man. From the beginning he showed signs of independence from the Median king Astyages who was his overlord. Around 550 BCE Astyages saw the danger from the Persian king and decided to teach him a lesson. He declared war on Cyrus who met him in battle on the plain of Pasargadae. Cyrus was a natural leader, men looked up to him and he had a charisma about him, such that seeing him, the Median army revolted against their king Astyages and presented to Cyrus their own king as a prisoner. Ecbatana the capital of Media surrendered to Cyrus.
Unlike previous kings, Cyrus spared both the city of Ecbatana and Astyages, neither were harmed. Median officials kept their jobs and their titles, but were supervised by Persians.
Cyrus now had at his command the excellent Median army and he turned his attention to Lydia ruled by king Croesus. King Croesus saw the defeat of the Medians by the Persians as a sign weakness and a chance to conquer some Median territory. Cyrus was ready to defend his newly won empire. In one month he took his army 1200 miles to Pteria and there the two armies fought. Neither side won, but Croesus decided to pull out, since winter was coming. He returned to Sardis his capital and believing that there would be no more fighting until spring, he paid off his soldiers. Cyrus believed in a strategy of surprise, doing things that his opponents never expected. He waited just long enough for Croesus to pay off his troops and then advanced swiftly to Sardis. Croesus hurriedly called back his troops and the two armies met in battle outside of Sardis. Now Cyrus had another surprise. Knowing that horses are always afraid of camels, he put his baggage camels mounted by soldiers out in front and charged the Lydian cavalry. The smell of the charging camels spooked the Lydian horses and they bolted in every direction. The Lydians lost the battle but were able to retreat into the fort of Sardis. With winter coming Cyrus was in no position to lay siege to the fort. On the 13th day he attacked the fort from the most difficult, least defended side. He managed to enter and conquer Sardis. Croesus committed suicide by having himself burned at the pyre. The conquest of Lydia brought all of Ionia (modern west Turkey) under the Persian empire.
Cyrus turned east again making sure that the Medians were still under his rule and then went on north and east, conquering Parthia (old Mazinderan) and Bactria (Afghanistan) then north to the Oxus river to the Aral sea, across the Central Asian plains to the Jaxartes river (also known as Syr Daria). These areas inhabited by nomadic tribes became part of the empire. He declared the Jaxartes river as his north eastern boundary. He built a series of seven fortresses to guard his north eastern boundary. All these conquests in the north east were done in one year. He had doubled the area of his empire and now had the greatest army in the whole world.
Cyrus was now ready to take on Babylon, the richest city known to him. Babylon was ruled by Nabonidus, who was not popular with his subjects as he did not take care of the gods and temple of Babylonia. In 540 BCE, Cyrus started his campaign. His army arrived at the Gyndes river and founded it to be not fordable (could not be crossed by foot). The Babylonians regarded this river as a boundary across which no army could come. Again Cyrus did the unexpected, he told his soldiers to start digging 180 channels so as to divert the water. The water level fell in the river as the water spread out into the diversions and his army crossed the river Gyndes into Babylonia. The Babylonians met his army at Opis and were defeated and sixteen days later Cyrus was at the gates of Babylon. The city wall was insurmountable and only broken where the river Euphrates entered and left the city. Babylon had food supplies to last twenty years, a siege would not have succeeded. Cyrus used his ingenuity once again. He had his soldiers dig trenches round the city wall deep enough to divert much of the rivers water round the city. The water level of the river fell and Cyrus’ army entered the city using the river bed where the Euphrates entered the city, Babylon fell to the Persians.
In those times it was customary for the invaders to kill off the inhabitants or take them prisoner as slaves, burn and loot the city. As soon as the city was firmly in his control, he ordered his soldiers not to harm the citizens. He left their temples alone and went to pay respect to their chief god Marduk. The result was that the Babylonians regarded Cyrus as their own king rather than an invader. At this time the Jews were slaves in Babylonia. Cyrus ordered them freed and allowed them to return to Jerusalem to rebuild their temple. He even promised to pay for the rebuilding of the temple. Today, the ruins of the second Jewish temple still stand, known as the Wailing Wall in Jerusalem. It is a holy site for the Jews. In the Old Testament Cyrus is regarded as anointed by the Lord for his magnanimity to the Jews.
Cyrus left his son Cambyses and a noble Gobryas to govern Babylon and returned to Ecbatana. He was now the ruler of the greatest empire known to history up to that time. Each captured land became a Satrapy, governed by a Satrap. The military garrison in each Satrapy reported directly to the great King. Frequently royal inspectors traveled openly or in disguise to report conditions in each Satrapy to Cyrus, King of Kings, King of all Lands, the tittle that Cyrus most often used.
After his return from Babylon Cyrus built his new capital Pasargadae, on the plain where he had defeated the Median king Astyages and started his conquests. In Pasargadae he built his tomb. Some years later the tribes north of the Jaxartes river united under a queen Tomyris and invaded his empire. Cyrus led his army to fight the invasion. In the battle that followed Cyrus was killed. His body was brought back to Pasargadae and entombed in the tomb that he had built. At the entrance to the tomb an inscription says: “Adam Kurush Kshayathia Hakhamanish” “I am Kurush the Hakahamanian”. According to Plutarch who visited the tomb during the empire, there was an inscription on the tomb, now worn away, which read “O man whoever you are and where so ever you come from, I am Kurush who founded the empire of the Persians, grudge me not therefore this little earth that covers my body”.
THE DECLARATION OF CYRUS AT BABYLON
The declaration written on a clay cylinder in Akkadian Cuneiform, was discovered in 1879. The text in English translation reads as follows:
“ When I entered Babylon without any battle, people welcomed my arrival with rejoicing. In the palace of the Kings of Babylon I sat upon the royal throne. Marduk (the God of the Babylonians) inclined the hearts of the noble people of Babylon favorably towards me because I looked upon Him with respect and love. My large army entered Babylon comfortably. I did not allow any calamity to befall the people of this city and this country.
“The internal conditions of Babylon and its sacred places touched my heart. I ordered that all the people were free to worship their God—and irreligious persons should not harm them.
“I ordered that none of the houses should be ruined. I ordered that none of the citizens should be put to death. The great God (Ahura Mazda?) was pleased with me and bestowed upon me Cyrus and upon my son Cambujiyeh and upon all my soldiers the gifts of his blessings.
“Kings who are sitting in their palaces in all the countries of the world, kings from across the seas and the kings of the west, all of them brought rich tributes and in Babylon they kissed my feet. I ordered that all the temples of Babylon, Sussa, Akkad and in the territory beyond the Euphrates which were built in ancient times and were closed should be reopened.
“I restored all the gods of this temple to their places so that they may remain there for ever. I gathered together the people of the areas and rebuilt their houses which had been demolished, the gods of Sumer and Akkad safely restored to their palaces known as “Delight of the Heart’. I bestowed upon all the people peace and happiness”
This was the human behavior of Cyrus. Previous rulers at their time of victory killed and destroyed the conquered cities, while Cyrus declared his pride in the freedom and happiness of his people. The declaration lays down the freedom of rights and worship of conquered people for the first time in history.
Contrast this with the behavior of Ashur Banipal (who lived only a hundred years before Cyrus) when he conquered Susa. In his own words: “I conquered Susa, I removed the seals from the treasuries and stores, accumulated by the kings from olden times. All the silver, gold, jewels cloaks and furniture of the palaces, statutes of kings made from gold and silver and precious stones were sent to Assyria. Then I rooted out the temples of Susa and reduced their gods to sand and rubble. The territory which was within the marching distance of one month and twenty days I made barren from end to end, loaded thorns into it and converted it into a marshy land. The sons and daughters of kings and all the members of the royal family, governors, officers weapon makers, artisans, men or women all the cattle were taken to Assyria. I crushed the head of Elam and removed the cries of joy and rejoicing from that territory. I converted the country into the abode of wild donkeys, wild boars, devils and wild beasts.”
Similarly Nebuchadnezar who rule Babylon a few years before Cyrus’ invasion of Babylon writes ”I ordered that a hundred thousand eyes may be brought before me and a hundred thousand shanks of the legs may be broken. With my own hands I gorged out the eyeballs of the commander of the enemy from the sockets. Thousands of boys and girls were burnt alive. I battered the houses in such a way that the sound of living persons may not come out of them again.”
CAMBYSIS II (KAMBUJYEH) 529-521 BCE
Cambyses, Cyrus’ first born son became King of the empire in 529 BCE. He put into action the plan that Cyrus had drawn out for the conquest of Egypt. Five years later Cambyses conquered Egypt and Pharaoh Psammenitos was taken prisoner. From that time forward for 124 years the Persian kings made up the 27th dynasty of Egyptian Pharaohs.
While Cambyses was still in Egypt, a man named Gaumata (also known as Bardya or Smerdis) and according to some historians a half brother of Cambyses, seized power in Media and proclaimed himself emperor. On hearing the news Cambysys hastened towards Pasargadae but died on the way. One story has it that he fell off his horse onto his own spear and was killed. Confusion followed the revolt of Gaumata and the accidental death of Cambyses. Within eight months the empire started to fall apart and the conquered countries rebelled and declared their independence.
Darius, the son Hystaspes from the other royal Persian family, had accompanied Cambyses to Egypt and was his spear bearer ( a high military rank). Seeing the disintegration of the family empire Darius returned to Pasargadae and plotted with seven other Persian nobles and killed Gaumata. He proclaimed himself King of Kings, King of all Lands.
DARIUS I The Great (DARAYUSH) 522-486 BCE
Darius became King of Kings in 522 BCE. At that time it was an empty tittle. The empire that Cyrus had built was in rebellion, little kings proclaimed their independence n Media and even in Persia. Babylon was in rebellion as was Egypt, Parthia and the Scythian territories in the north. In fourteen months of hard fighting from one end of the empire to another Darius recovered most of the empire putting down one rebellion after another with his small army and a few Persian nobles. In two years he had brought back all the territories that Cyrus had conquered back under the Persian empire.
Darius now had time to reflect. He realized the weaknesses of Cyrus’ empire. Nothing bound the empire together other than the military might of the Persian army. Darius set about to correct this by passing a set of reforms that applied to all the empire and bound it into an economic and administrative unit.
A uniform set of laws.
Darius’ first project was to have a uniform set of laws for the whole empire. A law book was quickly prepared based on the older laws of Hamurabi an ancient king of Babylon. Darius called his laws (Persian Dat) The Ordinance of Good Regulation. Its introduction read “ a great God is Ahuramazda, who created earth, who created the sky, who created man, who created all good things for man, who made Darius, King, one King of many, one Lord of many. a great God is Ahuramazda, who gave this beautiful work, who gave favor to man, who gave wisdom and friendliness to Darius the king.”
The king’s laws were enforced with great equality through out the empire, a Persian noble or a Babylonian slave both had to obey and observe the same laws. The penalties for breaking the laws was applied equally to all rich or poor and the laws remained unchanged throughout the 300 years of rule by the Hakhamanian dynasty. So remarkable was the incorruptible use of these laws that the words “The Laws of the Medes and Persians” became a by-word of judicial incorruptibility and harshness.
A uniform set of weights, measures and currency.
Darius also introduced a single set of weights and measures throughout the empire. Using these weights and measures, allowed commerce to proceed without confusion and time consuming translation of one countries weights and measures to another.
A new currency to be used through out the empire was introduced in which the highest denomination was a gold coin called the Daric. Again commerce could proceed without the need for conversion of one currency to another.
Darius also introduced uniform taxation throughout the empire. All subjects paid the same taxes with the exception of the Persians and Medes who paid none. The taxes were moderate and allowed Darius a regular income to use for the administration of empire and to build his capital cities, without destroying the economy.
Under the peace established by Persia, trade between nations of the empire grew tremendously and a general increase in the living standard of all the people was seen.
The Kings Roads.
Darius also built roads throughout the empire and introduced a system of king’s messengers (the worlds first postal system). The messengers called Angarum rode day and night in a relay system, a fixed distance each, passing the message from one to the next. By this system a message could be sent from Susa to Sardis a distance of 1500 miles in a week and Darius could know all that happened in his empire within a week of its occurrence.
Satrapies.
In the government of his empire he kept to the system of Satrapies and Satraps that Cyrus had used. The military garrison in each Satrapy reported directly to the King of Kings, and royal inspectors made announced and unannounced visits to the Satrapies to report conditions to Darius.
Cities of the Empire.
There were five important cities of the empire. Susa and Babylon cities older than the empire were administrative centers. Pasargadae built by Cyrus was the site of the coronation of all Hakhamanian kings a symbol of the memory of Cyrus, founder of the empire. Ecbatana the old Median capital, 6000 feet above sea level was used as the summer capital.
The gem of the empire, the pride of Darius and the following kings was Persepolis or Parsua as the Persians called it. It was started by Darius and it reflected the power and riches of the empire. Here every Jamshedi Nowrooz the Persian king received tribute of jewelry, horses, cattle, silk etc. from the subjects of every satrapy. It was here that special envoys from the empire were received in great pomp and glory. Great feasts and festivals were held here on special occasions. At Persepolis were stored all the treasures of the empire. A great library of books on Zoroastrianism, written in golden ink on hides also existed.
Some important achievements of Darius I and the dates
521 BCE Start of the building of Palaces at Susa
519 BCE Darius defeated the Scythian (Saka) tribes which had rebelled against Cyrus and caused the war in which Cyrus was killed.
518 BCE Darius arrived in Egypt and quelled the Egyptian rebellion
518 BCE Start of the building of Persepolis. Work on the city continued throughout the reign of Darius and construction was completed be his son Xerxes I
518 BCE Started construction of a canal to connect the Nile to the Red Sea, this was the first connection of the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea allowing ships a short cut between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. The Suez canal which achieved the same thing was built in 1869. Darius’ canal was completed in 500 BCE.
517-508 BCE Conquest of western India (the Indus valley).
515 BCE Completion of the second Jewish temple in Jerusalem. Funds promised by Cyrus were continued by Darius until the temple was completed.
513 BCE Darius built a bridge of 600 boats across the Bosphorous and entered Europe and conquered eastern Greece. He started an unsuccessful campaign against the western Saka tribes (north of Greece). He returned to Persia leaving behind his general Megabazus in command of 80,000 soldiers to continue the war against Greece. Thrace and Macedonia were conquered but in attempting to conquer Athens, the Persian army was defeated at Marathon.
512 BCE The Satrap of Egypt conquered Libya for the empire.
After a long reign of 38 years during which he brought the Persian empire to the height of its glory, Darius died at the age of 65. He was a warrior, a statesman, an economist, a great benefactor of his subjects. He brought peace and prosperity to the world which he ruled. The laws and institution he created became the foundation of the Hakahamanian dynasty so that even though the rulers who followed him were not as good as he was, the empire survived for nearly 300 years. He ruled most of the known world with justice and righteousness as a true Zoroastrian. He was one of the greatest rulers of the world. He was certainly one of the greatest personalities of human history. He was buried in a cave on a cliffside near Persepolis.
PERSEPOLIS (Parsa)
Persepolis, or Parsa as the Persians (the Parsua) called it, was the grandest of the five capital cities of the empire. The city was started by Darius I and building continued during the reigns of Xerxes I and Artaxerxes I. The buildings were renovated and new buildings were added towards the end of the empire under the reign of Artaxerxes III. It was destroyed by the Greek conqueror Alexander in the year 331 BCE.
Persepolis was built 45 miles from Pasargadae, the capital city built by Cyrus, and 300 miles from Susa. It was built on an outcrop of rock, which formed a natural platform 40 feet above the plain. On the backside of the city was protected by high cliffs.
Let us visit Persepolis in the year 467 BCE. It is early March, Xerxes I is the great King. As we approach Persepolis on the road from Susa we see estates of Persian nobles set back from the road. The road itself is lined with the huts of the laborers who are working on the construction of the city. These have come from all parts of the empire, some are freemen, some are slaves. There are Greeks, Egyptians, Phoenicians, Indians, Scythians, people from the entire known world. At last we come to the main entrance of the city. We notice that the entire terrace on which the city is built is guarded by a wall 40 ft high and 30 ft thick. Guard towers string along the wall every few hundred feet. The wall starts at he cliffs at the back and goes around the entire city back to the cliffs at the other end.
Unlike any other city this one must be entered by climbing stairs. A grand double stairway leads us to the gates of the city. Each step is 20 feet wide, 4 inches high and a foot deep. Horses can easily negotiate these steps. The climb of 40 feet is almost effortless. We arrive at the top and are awed by the two winged bulls of stone that stand on either side of the gate house. As you step into the gate house soldiers meet you with spears to ask your business. You better have a good reason to gain entrance otherwise you will not be allowed to proceed further. The doorway of the gate house is 40 feet high. The huge wooden gates are decorated with brass. You enter into the gate house which is 80 x 80 ft. and the roof is supported by four columns 60 ft high.
We turn right at the gate house and come out into a courtyard 200X 500 ft. At the other end of the court yard is the magnificent Apadana, the audience hall where all important public ceremonies take place. Thirty six columns support the roof of the central room of the Apadana. Another 12 columns on each of three sides support the roofs of the three porticos.
Two magnificent identical stairways on the north and east sides take us up to the Apadana itself. As we climb up we notice the carvings on the walls of the stairway, depicting the ceremony of Navrooz. Subjects from all the lands of the empire are bringing gifts of jewelry, gold, silver, horses, camels, bulls, sheep, silks and spices, the best of each land, offered to the King of Kings. You enter the Apadana and the size of the building overwhelms you, 10,000 people can fit into the building. This is the hall of public audience. Today it is empty but in a few days it will be Navrooz and there will be room for you here at the invitation of the great King only.
Let us now go back to the gate house and come out on the other side. A grand avenue stretches out in front of you and takes you to another courtyard. Across it stands the beautiful throne room, the hall of private audience. Somewhat smaller than the Apadana it is a more beautiful building. One hundred columns support its roof. Unlike the columns of the Apadana these are slender and delicate. Here the king meets his court daily when he is in Persepolis and much of the business of the court is transacted in this building, including receiving governors and ambassadors. The court is not in session today and you may peek into the throne room.
We now proceed to the rear of these two main buildings. Behind the throne room is the treasury. We walk through the building escorted by soldiers. The goldsmiths are working away on the taxes that have just arrived from Babylon. The gold coins sent from there are being melted down after counting, weighing and recording on clay tablets under the supervision of treasury officials. The molten gold is poured into earthen jars for easy storage and safeguarding. Treasury officers are directing others to get ready a shipment of gold to pay for the army that is being raised to fight in Greece.
Behind the Apadana is the palace of Darius where he used to stay, when in Persepolis. Xerxes is building his own palace behind that of his father. Further behind are the store rooms and the barracks for the 10,000 immortals, the kings guardian army. They are called the immortals because the strength of this army is always at 10,000. If a immortal dies or is killed in battle, he is immediately replaced by a new soldier.
On the cliff behind Persepolis we see the just completed tomb of Darius.
Persepolis(Parsa) was not a city designed for daily living. It was a monument to the glory of the Persians. Its remoteness ensured the exclusiveness of the state rituals and provided a measure of safety for the treasures of the empire that were stored there. Among these treasures were two copies of the 21 Nasks, the entire holy books of Zoroastrianism.
THE INSCRIPTIONS OF DARIUS I (THE GREAT)
During his long, prosperous rule of the Persian Empire, Darius left a number of inscriptions on rocks and buildings, to leave behind for humanity an idea of what kind of person he was and his achievements. The inscriptions can be found at Persepolis, at Naksh-I-Rustom, where his tomb is and most importantly on the rock face at Bisitun (Behistun, Bagastana).
The Bisitun inscription
On the main caravan route between Ecbatana and Babylon, where the road enters Iran, the mountains on the side of the road have many rocky cliffs. One of these provided Darius with just the right place to have his biography inscribed for all posterity to see. The inscription itself can not be seen from the road. After it was made, the cliff itself was chiseled smooth so that no one could climb to it easily. Darius had this done deliberately so that the inscription would not be vandalized. It took Henry Rawlinson 12 years, from 1835 to 1847 to make a full copy of the inscription. Often he worked dangerously perched on ladders, or hanging from a rope.
The inscription describes how he came to power, how he defeated Gaumata, the impostor on the Persian throne, how he rebuilt the empire and gives the names of the countries that were part of the empire. Here he even left some blank spaces to be filled in as his conquests increased. A forty foot carving showing Darius victorious over Gaumata and the other rebellion leaders, as prisoners accompany the inscription. Over this scene hovers the carving of the Farohar symbol. Copies of this symbol are worn by many Zoroastrians today.
The inscription is written in three languages, Old Persian, the language of Darius, Elamite and Akkadian, using the cuneiform script used in those days. This inscription was used as a rosetta stone to decipher Elamite and Akkadian.
Let us listen to some of Darius, own words:
“A great God is Ahura Mazda, who created the earth, who created yonder sky, who created man, who created happiness for man, who made Darius king, one king over many, one lord over many-----------. Ahura Mazda, when he saw this earth in trouble, he bestowed it upon me, he made me king. I am king. By the grace of Ahura Mazda I set the earth in place------. This which has been done, all that by the will of Ahura Mazda I did. Ahura Mazda bore me aid, until I finished the work.”
On his idea of justice:
“Ahura Mazda bore me aid because I was not hostile, I was not deceitful, I did not act falsely, neither I nor my family. I conducted myself according to justice. Neither to the weak nor to the powerful did I do wrong. The man who was excellent, him I rewarded well; him who was evil, I punished well. By the grace of Ahura Mazda I am of such a sort that I am a friend to right, I am not a friend to wrong. It is not my desire that the weak man should have wrong done to him by the mighty; nor is it my desire that the mighty should have wrong done to him by the weak. What is right, that is my desire------ It is not my desire that a man should do harm; nor is it my desire that if he should do harm, he should not be punished.”
On his strong belief in Ahura Mazda:
“Who so shall worship Ahura Mazda as long as his strength shall be, for him both while living and in death there is happiness”
On his belief that Drauga (deceit, falsehood) as being the greatest evil:
“Thou who shall be king hereafter, protect thyself from Drauga. May Ahura Mazda protect this land from a hostile army, from famine, from Drauga.”
On his pride in the palaces he constructed at Susa:
“A splendid work was ordered, very splendid did it turn out!”
His burial inscription:
“King whoever you are, who may arise after me, protect yourself well from Drauga (deceit). Do not trust the man who lies----Believe what I did and tell the truth to the people. Do not conceal it. If you do not conceal the truth, but you tell the people, may Ahura Mazda protect you.”
Xerxes I (Ksakhshaya I) 486 - 465 BCE
The great king Darius I died in November of 486 BCE. Four years before his death the Persian army had tried to conquer Athens and Sparta. It was defeated at the battle of Marathon by the Greeks. Some historians consider this battle one of the most significant in the history of the western world, because had the Persians won, Persian culture and language instead of Greek culture and language may well have become the origin of western culture. In reality, the defeat did not change much except the psychological balance. It was the first victory of any state over the Persians and it surprised both parties. Before Darius could avenge the defeat, he died in Persepolis at the age of 64 having ruled for 36 years. His son Xerxes, became King.
In the first year of Xerxes’ reign Egypt revolted, four years later Babylon did the same. Both rebellions were vigorously put down and the two countries were dealt with harshly. The autonomy that Cyrus had granted to Babylon was taken away. In fact the Satrapy of Babylon was combined with that of Assyria so that Babylon lost its identity. Xerxes had been the Satrap of Babylon for 12 years during his fathers reign and the rebellion of Babylon was a personal insult to him. After the seventh year of his reign he did not use the title King of Babylon among his other titles.
Xerxes now turned his attention to Greece. With a huge army of 200,000 and 1200 ships he crossed the Hellespont, like his father on a bridge of boats. His first bridge was broken up by a storm. To teach the sea a lesson he had it lashed 400 strokes! His second bridge was successful and the huge army crossed over into Europe. It had taken Xerxes four years to get his army and navy ready. The Greeks had time to prepare themselves. They united under the leadership of Sparta and chose the battles carefully. At Thermopylae, a narrow pass in the mountains the two armies met. In the narrow confines of the pass, the huge Persian army was ineffective and the Greeks were able to block the Persians and inflicted huge losses on the Persian army until the Persians were able to find a way around the mountain pass to Athens. Athens was easily taken and the city was burned and looted. Xerxes failed to behave like his predecessors and did not spare the city and its inhabitants One hundred and fifty years later Alexander would avenge this act by burning Persepolis. Further conquest of Greece was given up when the Persian navy was badly defeated at Salamis. As at Thermopylae, the Greeks chose to fight in a narrow waterway which was to their advantage, since their ships were smaller and more maneuverable. Xerxes retreated back across the Hellespont leaving behind his general Mardonius to continue to conquer the Greek states. Mardonius was defeated in 479 BCE and Greece did not become a part of Xerxes’ empire.
After the loss of Greece, Xerxes gave up ideas of further conquest and concentrated in governing the empire and completing the work his father had started at Persepolis.
Xerxes was not quite the man his father was. He had lived too long in the shadow of his illustrious and powerful father and was no longer a young man when he became King of Kings. Instead of innovating and thinking ahead he was satisfied in doing things his father’s way. Even the inscriptions he left behind sound like copies of his father’s inscriptions. His harshness in handling the rebellions of Egypt and Babylon, and his destruction of Athens were unlike the behavior of Cyrus and Darius. Unlike them he failed to win over the hearts of the conquered people. Most importantly Xerxes seems not to have controlled his own family and his court. There was corruption and intrigue at home. The Persian king in the Biblical story of Esther is believed to be Xerxes I, known by the name Ahasuerus.
Xerxes was killed by the captain of his own bodyguard, Artabanus, in conspiracy with the kings personal attendant Mithridates. His tomb is the one on the extreme right among the three tombs on the hillside behind Persepolis.
Artaxerxes I, 465-424 BCE
Artaxerxes is the Greek form of the old Persian word Artakshaksha, made up from the two words Arta (justice) and Kshatra (kingdom), it could mean having just rule.
Artaxerxes ruled for forty one years. The war between the Greeks and Persians continued. Persian diplomacy managed to divide Sparta and Athens. At this time Egypt revolted again and the Greek navy and army sided with the Egyptians. The Persians countered with a huge army and navy and defeated the Greeks in the Nile delta and the Egyptian rebellion was put down. A peace treaty was signed between the Greeks and the Persians. Diplomacy and the military might of the Persians maintained the empire intact. The taxes that the Persians were exacting from the countries they ruled over resulted in increasing wealth in Persepolis but a draining of wealth away from the Satrapies, resulting in an increasing inflation through out the empire. The kings who followed were blind to this.
Xerxes II and Sogdarius 424 BCE
These two kings followed Artaxerxes, who died a natural death, were murdered. The jealousies in the court which started with Xerxes I remained a problem for the smooth succession to the throne.
Darius II 424 - 404 BCE
During the twenty year reign of Darius II the Persians were able to re-establish control over most of Greece. Though the Greek city states did not become Satrapies of the empire, they were forced to pay tribute to the king and Persian garrisons were kept in the Greek cities.
Artaxerxes II 405 - 358 BCE
Artaxerxes II succeeded his father Darius II. He is said to have great memory. He was a wise and generous ruler, perhaps the best Hakhamanian king since Darius I and the longest ruling. He started reconstruction of Persepolis after an interval of 100 years. He won the respect of the Greek states that were warring among themselves and he imposed a peace on them, known as the King’s peace. Under this agreement certain Greek cities became part of the Persian Empire, some were free but paid tribute to Persia and others were under the jurisdiction of Athens, which was recognized as the chief city state of Greece. During his time Zoroastrians started worship in fire temples. Artaxerxes II ruled for 46 years and died peacefully at the age of 94.
Artaxerxes III 359 - 338 BCE
He was the third son of Artaxerxes II. The eldest, Darius was killed because he plotted against his father and the second seems to have committed suicide. Artaxerxes III was a particularly bloody king. He had most of his relatives killed, yearly in his rule to prevent any one from challenging him on the throne. He ruled for twenty years and his reign is not very significant. He was poisoned by courtier named Bagobas.
Arses III 338 - 336 BCE
He ruled for two years and was also poisoned by Bagobas.
Darius III 336 - 331 BCE
He was the grand nephew of Artaxerxes III. He was the last Hakhamanian king. By this time the empire which had not seen a good ruler for 22 years, was crumbling from corruption and poor administration. The institutions which Darius I had established were corrupted. The Persian army was a large collection of men of different nations and not the fighting machine of old. The Persian nobles had become rich, lazy and corrupt while the rest of the empire was reeling from the ever higher taxation.
At this time, a young Greek became king of Macedonia and raised an army to conquer all of Asia. He was Alexander of Macedonia. With an army of 35,000 he crossed the Helespont. The Persian Satrap of Asia minor (present day Turkey) met this army. Though the Persian army was larger, it lacked the cunning and discipline of old. Even though the Persians fought well, they were defeated. During that year Alexander conquered Asia Minor. In 333 BCE he marched south and was met by Darius III and his army at Isus. Darius seems to have panicked and fled before the battle was decided, when they saw the king flee, the Persian army gave up. In 332 BCE, Alexander conquered Egypt and in 331 BCE he arrived at the gates of Persia itself. Darius met him in battle at Gaugamela. Darius seems to have panicked again before the outcome of the battle was decided. At one point, a Persian soldier was able to strike at Alexander himself and brought him down, before he could deliver the fatal blow, he was killed by Alexander’s body guards. Again Darius fled from battle and the Persians gave up. Alexander’s army entered Persia, Babylon and Susa fell and then Persepolis. In order to carry off the treasures of Persepolis, Alexander had to order mules and camels from Babylon. While awaiting their arrival he conquered Pasargade. There he ordered that Cyrus’s tomb not be touched. Returning to Persepolis, he arranged for the treasures of Persepolis to be sent back to Greece and on his last day there he ordered the city burned. Some say it was in revenge for the burning of Athens by Xerxes I, others say that it was a drunken Alexander who ordered it. The looting and burning of Persepolis resulted in the loss of all the religious books stored in the library.
Darius III fled east to Bactria, there he was killed by the Satrap, who thought he would gain favor with Alexander. It took Alexander six years to conquer the rest of the empire. On his return to Babylon from the conquest, he died of a mysterious fever. Three of his generals divided up his conquered territories. General Seleucus ruled over Iran.
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